Skip to main content Skip to navigation
Washington State University - Puyallup Organic Farming Systems and Nutrient Management

Biosolids

Biosolids Management

Overview:

Biosolids are stabilized solids from municipal wastewater treatment that meet federal criteria for land application. They are a good source of plant nutrients (particularly nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur, and zinc). We have done research on nutrient availability from biosolids in dryland wheat rotations in eastern Washington and irrigated forage grasses in western Washington. We also have a biosolids and compost demonstration garden at WSU Puyallup. We have been partners in a national biosolids study designed to develop simple methods to predict the availability of nitrogen from different types of biosolids in different environments, and in a study assessing the fate of flame retardants in biosolids.

♣ Worksheet for Calculating Biosolids Application in Agriculture (PDF-Online, complete publication, revised Jan 2021) or ♣ Download Worksheet (Excel XLS-Online). Sullivan, D.M., D. Griffin LaHue, B. Dari, A.I. Bary, and C.G. Cogger. 2021. PNW0511. Pacific Northwest Extension Publication.

Links:

♣ Oregon State University Department of Crop & Soil Science, biosolids resources.

♣ Northwest Biosolids Management Association, information, events, message board.

♣ Washington State Department of Ecology Biosolids Program, information, regulations, permitting, reports, FAQs.

♣ US Environment Protection Agency Office of Wastewater Management, FAQs, regulations, publications

Slideshows:

♣ Soils and Biosolids Nutrient Management (PDF-Online, 74 slides, use browser vertical scroll bar to page through slides), presented at Clackamas short course.

♣ Soil Carbon Sequestration Potential in Urban Soils (PDF-Online, 19 slides, use browser vertical scroll bar to page through slides).

Publications – Extension and Management Bulletins:

♣ Worksheet for Calculating Biosolids Application in Agriculture (PDF-Online, complete publication, revised Jan 2021) or or ♣ Download Worksheet (Excel XLS-Online). Sullivan, D.M., D. Griffin LaHue, B. Dari, A.I. Bary, and C.G. Cogger. 2021. PNW0511. Pacific Northwest Extension Publication.

♣ Fertilizing with Biosolids (PDF-Online). Sullivan, D.M., C.G. Cogger, and A.I. Bary. 2015. PNW 508.  Pacific Northwest Extension Publication.

♣ Gardening and the Use of Biosolids are listed on our Gardening Page.

♣ Biosolids in Dryland Cropping Systems (PDF-Online). Sullivan, D.M., C.G. Cogger, A.I. Bary, and L.J. Brewer. 2018. PNW 716. Pacific Northwest Extension Publication.

♣ Biosolids Management Guidelines for Washington State (PDF-Online).  Cogger, C.G., D.M. Sullivan, C.L. Henry, and K. P. Dorsey.   2000.  Washington State Dept. Ecology Pub. #93-80.

♣ Urban Highway Roadside Soils and Shrub Plantings are Enhanced by Surface Applied and Incorporated Organic Amendments (Request pdf e-copy). Bary. A. R.L. Hummel, and C. Cogger. 2016. J. Arbor. Urban Hort. 42:418-427.

♣ Fate of Antibiotics and Antibiotic Resistance During Digestion and Composting: A Review (Request pdf e-copy). Youngquist, C.P, S.M. Mitchell, and C.G. Cogger. 2016. J. Environ. Qual. 45:537-545. doi:10.2134/jeq2015.05.0256

♣ Antibiotic Degradation During Thermophilic Composting (Request pdf e-copy). Mitchell, S.M., J.L. Ullman, A. Bary, C.G. Cogger, A.L. Teel, and R.J. Watts. 2015. Water Air Soil Pollut. 226:13.

Publications – Other Reports:

♣ A Survey of Skagit County Residents: Opinions about Local Reuse and Recycling of Biosolids Compost (Full Report, PDF-Online) or ♣ Online Summary (PDF-Online). Youngquist, C. P. and J. R. Goldberger.  Washington State University.  2013.  As part of a Washington State University (WSU) research project funded by the Town of La Conner, WA, a mail survey of Skagit County residents was conducted in 2013. The objectives were (1) to gain a better understanding of residents’ attitudes, opinions, and knowledge about the use of “Class A” biosolids on agricultural land and in the community; and (2) to explore potential correlations between attitudes about biosolids and the demographics and lifestyle choices of respondents. The results provide valuable insight into Skagit County residents’ attitudes, opinions, and knowledge about local waste management, local agricultural use of “Class A” biosolids, and the use of biosolids-based fertilizers on food crops. This information will be useful to local governments, community groups, waste management personnel, farmers, and researchers.

Publications – Peer-reviewed Journals:

♣ Marigold and Pepper Growth in Container Substrates Made from Biosolids Composted with Carbon-Rich Organic Wastes (Request pdf e-copy). Hummel, R.L., C. Cogger, A. Bary, and R. Riley. 2014. HortTechnology 24:325-333.

♣ Biosolids Applications to Tall Fescue Have Long-Term Influence on Soil Nitrogen, Carbon, and Phosphorus (Request pdf e-copy). Cogger, C.G., A.I. Bary, E.A. Myhre, and A.M. Fortuna. 2013.  J. Environ. Qual. 42:516–522.

♣ Long-Term Crop and Soil Response to Biosolids Applications in Dryland Wheat (Request pdf e-copy). Cogger, C. G., A. I. Bary, A. C. Kennedy, and A.M. Fortuna. 2013. J. Environ. Qual. 42:1872-1880.

♣ Estimating Nitrogen Availability of Heat-Dried Biosolids (Request pdf e-copy). Cogger, C.G., A.I. Bary, and E.A. Myhre.  2011.  Applied Environ. Soil Sci.  Vol. 2011, Article ID 190731, 7p.  doi:10.1155/2011/190731

♣ Dryland Winter Wheat Yield, Grain Protein, and Soil Nitrogen Responses to Fertilizer and Biosolids Applications (Request pdf e-copy). Koenig, R.T., C.G. Cogger, and A.I. Bary.  2011.  Applied Environ. Soil Sci. Vol. 2011, Article ID 925462, 9p. doi:10.1155/2011/925462.

♣ Quantifying Benefits Associated with Land Application of Residuals in Washington State (Request pdf e-copy). Brown, S. K. Kurtz, A. Bary, and C. Cogger. 2011. Env. Sci. Tech. 45:7451-7458.

♣ Chrysanthemum Production in Composted and Noncomposted Organic Waste Substrates Fertilized with Nitrogen at Two Rates Using Surface and Subirrigation (Request pdf e-copy). Krucker, M., R.L. Hummel, and C. Cogger. 2010. HortSci. 45:1695-1701.

♣ Predicting Biosolids Application Rates for Dryland Wheat Across a Range of Northwest Climate Zones (Request pdf e-copy). Sullivan, D., Bary, A., Cogger, C. and Shearin, T. 2009. Commun. Soil Sci. Plant Anal. 40:1770-1789.

♣ Biosolids Recycling: Nitrogen Management and Soil Ecology (Request pdf e-copy). Cogger, C.G., T.A. Forge, and G.H. Neilsen, 2006. Can. J. Soil Sci. 86:613-620.

♣ Biosolids Processing Effects on First and Second Year Available N (Request pdf e-copy). Cogger, C.G., Bary, A.I., D.M. Sullivan, and E.A. Myhre. 2004. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 68:162-167.

♣ Decomposition and Plant-Available Nitrogen in Biosolids: Laboratory Studies, Field Studies, and Computer Simulation). (Request pdf e-copy). Gilmour, J.T., C.G. Cogger, L.W. Jacobs, G.K. Evanylo, and D.M. Sullivan. 2003. J. Environ. Qual. 32:1498-1507.

♣ Seven Years of Biosolids vs. Inorganic Nitrogen Applications to Tall Fescue (Request pdf e-copy). Cogger, C.G., A.I Bary, S.C. Fransen, and D.M. Sullivan. 2001. J. Environ. Qual. 30:2188-2194.

♣ Nitrogen Recovery from Heat-Dried and Dewatered Biosolids Applied to Forage Grasses (Request pdf e-copy). Cogger, C.G., D.M. Sullivan, A.I. Bary, and S.C. Fransen. 1999. J. Environ. Qual. 28:754-759.

♣ Matching Plant-Available Nitrogen from Biosolids with Dryland Wheat Needs (PDF-Online). Cogger, C.G., D.M. Sullivan, A.I. Bary, and J.A. Kropf. 1998. J. Prod. Agric. 11:41-47.

♣ Biosolids and Dairy Manure as Nitrogen Sources for Prairiegrass on a Poorly Drained Soil (Request pdf e-copy). Sullivan, D.M., S.C. Fransen, C.G. Cogger, and A.I. Bary. 1997. J. Prod. Agric. 10:589-596.

Organic Farming Systems Research

Organic Farming Systems

This experiment was on organically certified research land, and included only organic treatments.

Overview:

In 2002 we established an organic farming systems experiment for vegetable production on organically certified research land at WSU Puyallup. The experiment compared 12 organic management systems, including three cover cropping systems, 2 tillage treatments, and 2 amendment types, arranged in a split-split plot design. Treatments were chosen based on input from local farmers through workshops, farm visits, surveys, and focus groups.  The experiment was terminated in 2015.

Treatments:

A-Three cover crops
B-Two tillage systems
C-Two organic amendments

 

A-Three cover crops (main plots):

1-Post harvest cover crop: fall planted cereal-legume mix after the vegetable crops were harvested.

2-Relay cover crop: summer planted legume, as a relay crop planted between rows of the cash crop before they were harvested.

3-Pasture crop, fall planted grass-legume mix: managed as pasture for one (prior to 2007) to two (following 2007) growing seasons before incorporation the following growing season. This treatment was planted to cash crops in 2003, 2005, and 2007, 2010, 2013. Pastured poultry were raised on these plots in 2006, 2008, 2009, 2011 and 2012 and sheep were raised on these plots in 2008, 2009, 2011, 2012, and 2014.  Additional organic matter beyond chicken and sheep manure was not added to plots following 2007.

B-Two tillage systems to prepare ground (split plots):

1-Conventional: major tillage done with plow, disc, and rototiller as needed.

2-Modified: major tillage done with a spader. This usually prepares a seedbed in a single pass.

C-Two organic amendments (split-split plot):

1-Low carbon amendment: broiler litter, low C:N ratio, low application rate (average 2 dry tons/acre). The broiler litter is piled, self-heated to at least 131 F and turned 5 times to meet organic standards for pathogen reduction.

2-High carbon amendment: compost made on-farm compost, medium C:N ratio, high application rate (average 15 dry tons/acre). The on-farm compost consisted of broiler litter, yard debris, separated dairy solids, and sawdust/straw bedding from the local fair. It was composted in a static pile (actively aerated for 4-6 weeks), then passively cured for 5 months, with temperatures monitored to meet organic standards.

Measurements:

  • Crop yield and quality
  • Soil organic matter, pH, soil test nutrients
  • Soil nitrate (early season, mid-season, and post harvest)
  • Cover crop yield
  • Soil physical measurements (aggregate stability, bulk density, compaction, infiltration)
  • Soil biological quality (collembola, nematodes, PLFA, selected enzymes and substrate-induced respiration)
  • Weed ecology (weed biomass and/or counts and major species)
  • Production costs and value

 

Organic Farming Systems field map of treatments.

Crop rotation:

Single crops (outlined in red below) were grown the first three years of the experiment, including snap bean, fall spinach following summer cover, and winter squash. Beginning in 2006, each plot was planted to 4 rotation crops each year, with one bed having two consecutive crops.  Crops included snap bean, winter squash, broccoli, and lettuce.  In 2011 and 2015 winter wheat was grown in the relay and post harvest plots to break up disease cycles.  Pasture plots were in pasture 1 year followed by 1 year of vegetable cropping prior to 2007, then 2 years of pasture followed by one year of vegetable cropping thereafter.

Overhead photo of Organic Farming Systems field showing different crops outlined by red lines.

Organic Farming Systems photo of plots, one replicate outlined in purple.Above, one Replicate (outlined in purple)

Results:

♣ Soil Physical Properties, Nitrogen, and Crop Yield in Organic Vegetable Production Systems (PDF-Online). Cogger. C.G., A.I. Bary, E.A. Myhre, A. Fortuna, and D.P. Collins. 2016. Agron. J. 108:1142-1154. doi:12.2134agronj2015.0335

♣ Management Effects on Soil Quality in Organic Vegetable Systems in Western Washington (Request pdf e-copy). Pritchett, K., A.C. Kennedy, and C.G. Cogger. 2011. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 75:605-615.

Pasture Poultry Cage

Movable Pastured Poultry Cage Plans

 

 

♣ 1 meg PDF Movable Poultry Cage Plan, lower print quality, faster download

♣ 3 meg PDF Movable Poultry Cage Plan, better print quality, slower download

 

 

 

*Click on photos below to enlarge them.

Photo of pasture Poultry Cage with slow growing cornish cross, cage lids open.

Above-Pastured poultry cage with lids open for feeding and cleaning water dishes. Breeds in this photo are slower growing Red and Bronze Rangers. Cages are moved daily to provide fresh forage for the chickens, keep their area clean to avoid diseases, and to distribute manure that provides nutrients for pasture growth. A dolly with a wedge (see other photo) is placed under the rear, the front is picked up by a handle (seen above center front of cage – thick rope with short PVC length for a handle) and the cage moved forward a cage length each day. Normally only one person is needed to move the cage. Four corner handles are for moving cages with more people longer distances or in and out of the fields.

Photo of Pasture Poultry Cages in field showing water buckets on top.

Above-Side view of Pasture Poultry Cages. The siding provides shade, the lid can be raised and the bottom slightly propped up during hotter weather for greater airflow.

Photo of asture Poultry Cage, showing grazed areas behind cages.

Above-Good view showing grazed pasture from previous days. The grazed area quickly regrows with the addition of the chicken manure.

Photo of pasture Poultry Cage, bucket water system on top of cage.

Above-4-gallon water buckets on top of the Pasture Poultry Cage provide a constant flow of water for waterers. A hole is cut in a regular bucket, a barrel bung and valve are inserted, then is plumbed to the waterers via garden dripline. Other sized buckets and types of plumbing can be used. A valve (optional) makes the bucket removable without losing all the water. We always used two totally independent watering units as backups in case of malfunction of one.

Photo of pasture Poultry Cage, nipple waterer.

Above-We later used nipple waterers with the above 4 gallon buckets. These were superior to the hanging bell waterers as they didn’t clog like the bell waterers did nor did they have a dish that had to be cleaned out.

Photo of pasture Poultry Cage, dolly and wedge used to raise rear of cage to move it.

Above-The dolly slips under the back of the Pasture Poultry Cage and the wooden wedge is put in to hold the dolly tipped back so the rear bottom of the cage is a few inches off the ground. The cage is pulled forward by a rope on the front of the cage. A person does not have to hold the dolly when the cage is moved so it can be a one-person job. The person must carefully watch chickens at the back of the pen to make sure all chickens are clear of the back and dolly as they move, and stop if there is any risk of one going under. When birds first go out it’s best to have a “shoosher” person at the back. After a few days they learn to follow the cage.

Photo of Pasture Poultry Cage showing hanging gutter trough feeders.

Above-Feeders made out of roof gutters are suspended from the cage “rafters” so they don’t have to be moved in and of the cage each time it’s moved. Feeders are made of a 3ft length of guttering with 2 gutter end caps. A spinning PVC roll bar to prevent chickens from perching on the feeder is made by suspending a ca 1/4″ diameter metal rod a couple inches over the feeder and placing a slightly shorter length of PVC over the rod. Height of the feeders is adjustable with hooks on the chains so it can be raised as the chickens grow.

Photo of slow growing cornish cross chickens.

Above-Having chickens that have been raised with a lot of human attention from first arrival from the hatchery is important. Tamer chickens are very pleasant to work with and are less stressed when handling is necessary. We introduce chicks to greenery (finely chopped pasture clover and grass) in the brooder so they know what it is when they get in the field. We also associate a “chicken call” when greens are fed to chicks to teach them to come when called. This helps them to learn more quickly to move forward during cage moving time when they’re first put out in the Pasture Poultry Cage.

Photo of pasture Poultry Cage, hanging bell waterers.

Above-Inside view of hanging bell waterers that automatically refill as water is drunk by the birds. Regular garden dripline is used to connect waterers to water source buckets (see below). Hanging waterers are time savers as they don’t have to be taken in and out of the cage when it’s being moved, and are quite easy to clean. In 2010 we changed to using nipple waterers (see below) as they were more reliable. Two totally independent watering systems are critical to provide backup in case one malfunctions, as a cage of approximately 35 larger birds can use 4 gallons on a hot day.

Andy Bary

Andy Bary

Senior Scientific Assistant, Retired
Department of Crop and Soil Sciences
Washington State University Puyallup

 

Education:

M.S. in Agronomy, Washington State University, 1986.
B.S. in Plant Science, University of Idaho, 1979.
A.A.S. in Agronomy and Environmental Protection, Alfred Agricultural and Technical College, 1977.

Recent Professional Employment:

2021-Retired.
1995-2021: Scientific Assistant, Washington State University – Puyallup.
Conduct research related to grant funded activities in agricultural utilization of different byproducts including biosolids, composts and animal wastes. Responsibilities include research program priorities, development, design, preparation of grant proposals, management of grant budgets, statistical analyses, and supervise field research and time-slip personnel. Communicate with grantors regarding progress and direction of research.

1990-1995: Agricultural Research Technologist, Washington State University – Puyallup.
Assist in development of Cooperative Extension programs in organic byproduct management, soils and water quality. Manage field research on land application of biosolids, animal wastes, and composts. Supervise laboratory and field labor. Conduct on-farm research. Organize and analyze research data using spreadsheets, databases, graphics and statistical computer software.

Recent Professional Activities in Crop Production and Organics Recycling:

Washington Organic Recycling Council. I serve as a board member on an organization of composters, government regulators, local governments and universities promoting advocacy and information relating to organics recycling in Washington.
Northwest Biosolids Management Association. I serve as an advisor to local and state agencies on biosolids land application and utilization in crop production.

Food and Farm Connection Team. A team of western Washington Cooperative Extension agents and specialist. The mission of the team is to enhance sustainable community food and farm systems through education, research and partnerships.

Links:

♣ Soils for Salmon

Pastured Poultry

Pastured Poultry

Overview:

Raising pastured poultry is a simple way to integrate livestock onto small farms. They are suitable for farms that do not currently have livestock, or they can be raised in a system that includes other types of animals.

This page summarizes our experience with small-scale pastured poultry production on our organically certified land at WSU Puyallup from 2005-2012. We began raising pastured broilers with the goal of integrating them into a vegetable-pasture rotation in our organic farming systems experiment.

Methods:

We used small (5’x 10’), lightweight traveling cages for housing the birds on pasture (see design plans below). Each cage held up to 35 birds and contained two feed troughs and two independent watering units. Cages were rolled daily onto fresh pasture using a dolly system. We supplied feed and water to birds as needed once to twice daily. The pasture areas were enclosed with a portable electric fence to provide extra protection from predators.

Chicks were moved from the brooder to the field at 2 to 3 weeks of age, and were slaughtered at 8 weeks (Fast Cornish Cross) to 11 weeks of age (Slow Cornish Cross varieties). Our birds were slaughtered on farm using a mobile slaughtering unit.

Each bird was weighed when moved to the field, at intervals during their life cycle up to the time of slaughter, and after dressing. We also measured daily and total feed supplied to the flock to determine feed conversion. In 2007 and 2008 we participated in a project to study lactic acid as an organic alternative to chlorine bleach for carcass sanitation during processing (see Publications).

We raised Fast Cornish Cross, Kosher King, and Slow Cornish birds in 2005, Fast Cornish Cross in 2006, Freedom Rangers in 2007, and Slow Red Cornish Cross and Fast Cornish Cross in 2008-2009 2011, and Red Freedom Rangers and Fast Cornish Cross in 2012.

Cage Design

♣ Photos and designs of portable poultry cages.

Results:

Bird survival and weight, feed use, and feed conversion are summarized in Tables 1 and 2 below. Fast Cornish Cross chickens had much better feed conversion than the other breeds, but otherwise did not function as well in the pastured poultry environment. This was especially true in 2006, when we lost many birds late in the season because of heart attacks or inability to walk. The Fast Cornish Cross also tended to have more difficulty moving with the cages, especially in the final weeks before slaughter. Feed conversion was lower in the spring of 2005 than in the later trials, likely as a result of not switching from chick grit to hen grit after they were moved to the field. Feed consumption and bird weights were down in 2009 due to a 10 day hot period when birds didn’t eat or gain as much.  In 2012 the Fast Cornish Cross ate more feed than previous years, but didn’t grow as well as previous years.

Publications:

♣ Break-Even Analysis of Small-Scale Production of Pastured Organic Poultry (PDF-Online) and ♣ Excel Spreadsheet for Calculating Costs (Excel Xlsx file-Online). Painter, K., E. Myhre, A. Bary, C. Cogger, and W. Jemmett. 2015. Pacific Northwest Extension Publication PNW 665.

♣ Validation of a 2 Percent Lactic Acid Antimicrobial Rinse for Mobile Poultry Slaughter Operations (PDF-Online). Killinger, K.M., A. Kannan, A.I. Bary, and C.G. Cogger.  2010. J. Food Prot. 73:2079-2083.

Photo of pastured poultry moveable pens showing the previous day's grazed area in the foreground of the cages.
Above-Movable pasture pens.
Photo of pastured poultry, fast growing cornish cross being weighed.
Above-Cornish Cross, final size. Fast growing.
Photo of pastured poultry, slow growing variety, freedom ranger, "Rufus."
Above-Freedom Ranger, final size, hen named “Rufus.” Slow growing.

Table 1. Pastured poultry data summary 2005-2012, fast growing White Cornish Crosses.

NOTES:

  • 2005 (spring) only chick grit was used which affected feed conversion. For following groups we used chick grit in the brooder then hen grit in the field.
  • 2009: very hot period (10 days) when birds didn’t eat/grow much.
  • 2012: Birds ate a lot but Fast CornishX didn’t grow like previous years.
 2005 spring2005 summer20062008200920112012
No. Received Alive817815678767075
No. Slaughtered697512972636766
No. Small Birds (<3lb live weight at slaughter)11100100
Age at Slaughter (weeks)898887.77.6
Average carcass weight (lb)3.95.04.94.64.05.03.8
Total Feed Used (lb)147212932408136387511371291
Feed Used/Bird (lb)21.317.218.718.913.917.019.0
Feed Conversion (lb feed/lb meat)5.53.53.84.13.43.44.9

Table 2. Pastured poultry data summary 2005-2012, slower growing broiler varieties.

NOTES:

  • 2005 (spring) only chick grit was used which affected feed conversion. For following groups we used chick grit in the brooder then hen grit in the field.
  • 2009: very hot period (10 days) when birds didn’t eat/grow much.
 2005 spring2005 summer20072008200920112012
No. Received Alive69978578787477
No. Slaughtered52547577736969
No. Small Birds (<3lb live weight at slaughter)132300000
Age at Slaughter (weeks)10111111111111
Average Carcass Weight (lb)3.43.24.84.13.33.64.2
Total Feed Used (lb)133698518601592127014501690
Feed Used/Bird (lb)25.718.224.820.717.420.423.5
Feed Conversion (lb feed/lb bird)7.65.75.25.15.25.95.7

Home

Overview of our Program

Soils & Organic Farming Systems

Beginning in 2002, we expanded our focus to organic farming systems, including organic amendments, cover crops, and quality of soils. We are working with an interdisciplinary team studying a range of issues important to small scale, direct-market, and organic agriculture, including nutrient management, food safety, soil quality, weed management, economics, marketing, and on-farm research.

Land Application of Organic Wastes

Many organic wastes contain nutrients and organic matter that can benefit plant growth and soil productivity. Recycling these materials onto land captures nutrients that would otherwise be lost, and helps sustain our resource base. They are also a source of organic matter for soils, building and maintaining soil quality. Organic wastes may contain pathogens and small amounts of toxic materials, which can become pollutants if the materials are not managed properly. Over-application of some organic wastes can result in excessive levels of nutrients in the soil, which can harm crop production or water quality. We study nutrient availability from organic materials, to enable us to determine appropriate rates and timing of applications for crop production. We also evaluate short and long term effects of organic amendments on soil quality in agricultural and urban soils.

Our Goal

The goal of our program is to build soil productivity, support local agriculture, protect water quality, and facilitate recycling of organic wastes, by applying soil science principles to agricultural, development, and waste management issues.